Sri Lanka is not unique in this regard, but nevertheless represents an important example of how and why sexual violence against men and boys is committed in conflict settings, and the impact it has. It also presents opportunities to break the old pattern of denial that has been typical in many other conflict-affected countries. In particular, commitments by the government of Sri Lanka to establish various judicial and non-judicial transitional justice mechanisms could, if honoured, create an opportunity for developing the specialised structures, strategies, and capacities necessary to ensure that sexual violence against men and boys is appropriately addressed as part of broader transitional justice processes. The fact that sexual violence by state security forces in Sri Lanka against both males and females continues today, albeit at reduced levels, creates an added urgency to act.
However, this confusion is rooted in much broader societal understandings and attitudes. Despite evidence suggesting that sexual abuse of boys is common in the context of sex tourism, schools, care homes, religious establishments and other similar settings in Sri Lanka, and that male-on-male sexual violence outside such settings is also not uncommon, the problem is buried under silence and denial.
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But stigma and shame are far from being unique to Sri Lanka. Rigid masculinity norms and other forms of gender-stereotyping, while somewhat differently manifested, are also deeply entrenched in BiH and often cited as among the reasons that male survivors are unwilling to come forward. Rather than accepting under-reporting as an inevitable, the challenges faced in both BiH and Sri Lanka speak to the need for the development of gender-sensitive understandings of stigma and for specific strategies to encourage and support survivors of male sexual violence to speak out and seek assistance.
The still relatively few cases of conflict-related sexual violence against men and boys in Sri Lanka that have been documented in detail nevertheless point to patterns of rape and other brutal forms of abuse. While these differ in some notable respects from the types of sexual violence perpetrated against males during the war in BiH, men and boys in both contexts were subjected to rape, genital violence, enforced nudity and other forms of sexual abuse, and in neither case, were these isolated incidents.
In both situations male detainees were, and in the case of Sri Lanka continue to be, at risk of sexual violence. In BiH, male rape and other forms of sexual violence typically occurred in the context of mass internment of civilians. In Sri Lanka, most reported cases of sexual violence against men are perpetrated during detention by state security forces under repressive anti-terror legislation. Although attention is also needed to other potential situations of vulnerability, effective safeguards to protect detainees from sexual violence should be a priority in both countries.
In Sri Lanka, a wholly inadequate legal framework also limits protection available to men and boys and undermines efforts to hold perpetrators to account. Sri Lankan law does not recognise and therefore does not proscribe male rape. Similarly, the prohibition of statutory rape applies only to girls (under the age of 16 years) and not to boys. Added to this is widespread discrimination, also enshrined in law, against homosexuals and the criminalisation of consensual same-sex sexual acts, which may further discourage male survivors from reporting or accessing services for fear that they may be accused of homosexual activity and themselves be prosecuted.
There are nevertheless other impediments to investigations and prosecutions in BiH that have direct parallels in Sri Lanka and affect the prospects for redress for male survivors in both contexts. Lack of effective protection for victims and witnesses has prevented male survivors from lodging official complaints and taking forward criminal proceedings in both Sri Lanka and Bosnia. Similarly, the absence of dedicated capacity and expertise within the justice sector to investigate and prosecute conflict-related sexual violence cases in both BiH and Sri Lanka continues to remain a significant barrier to justice.
Establishing criminal accountability is a priority but represents only one part of the necessary response. Survivors also need support services and have the right to reparations to ensure effective redress and enable their recovery and rehabilitation. However, this is not possible unless sexual violence against men and boys is acknowledged in law and survivors are protected and supported to come forward to seek medical and other services, as well as engage in truth-seeking, reparations programs and other transitional justice processes. Again, Sri Lanka has much to learn from BiH where truth-seeking processes that might have produced a more complete picture of sexual violence against men and boys have never got off the ground, and where male survivors are largely excluded from accessing reparations including because of poorly drafted legislation, a lack of adequate outreach to male survivors and arbitrary deadlines for applications.
In Sri Lanka, the proposed commission for truth, justice, reconciliation and non-recurrence represents an important opportunity to establish a fuller picture of sexual violence against men and boys and its impact, and therefore for harms to be addressed more fully. Likewise, the establishment of the planned reparations office offers the possibility of engaging and including survivors of sexual violence, both male and female from the start.
Despite the island's well-developed tourist industry, many Sri Lankans are socially conservative and deeply religious. Swimwear is fine for the beach, but not when wandering about town. Going nude or topless is not permitted on any Sri Lankan beaches.
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Among the oldest surviving examples of erotic depictions are Paleolithic cave paintings and carvings. Some of the more common images are of animals, hunting scenes and depictions of human genitalia. Nude human beings with exaggerated sexual characteristics are depicted in some Paleolithic paintings and artifacts (e.g. Venus figurines). Recently discovered cave art at Creswell Crags in England, thought to be more than 12,000 years old, includes some symbols that may be stylized versions of female genitalia. As there is no direct evidence of the use of these objects, it is speculated that they may have been used in religious rituals,[14] or for a more directly sexual purpose.[15]
Archaeologists in Germany reported in April 2005 that they had found what they believe is a 7,200-year-old scene depicting a male figurine bending over a female figurine in a manner suggestive of sexual intercourse. The male figure has been named Adonis von Zschernitz.[16]
A vast number of artifacts have been discovered from ancient Mesopotamia depicting explicit sexual intercourse.[17][18] Glyptic art from the Sumerian Early Dynastic Period frequently shows scenes of frontal sex in the missionary position.[17] In Mesopotamian votive plaques from the early second millennium BC, the man is usually shown entering the woman from behind while she bends over, drinking beer through a straw.[17] Middle Assyrian lead votive figurines often represent the man standing and penetrating the woman as she rests on top of an altar.[17] Scholars have traditionally interpreted all these depictions as scenes of ritual sex,[17] but they are more likely to be associated with the cult of Inanna, the goddess of sex and prostitution.[17] Many sexually explicit images were found in the temple of Inanna at Assur,[17] which also contained models of male and female sexual organs,[17] including stone phalli, which may have been worn around the neck as an amulet or used to decorate cult statues,[17] and clay models of the female vulva.[17]
The ancient Greeks often painted sexual scenes on their ceramics, many of them famous for being some of the earliest depictions of same-sex relations and pederasty. Greek art often portrays sexual activity, but it is impossible to distinguish between what to them was illegal or immoral since the ancient Greeks did not have a concept of pornography. Their art simply reflects scenes from daily life, some more sexual than others. Carved phalli can be seen in places of worship such as the temple of Dionysus on Delos, while a common household item and protective charm was the herm, a statue consisting of a head on a square plinth with a prominent phallus on the front. The Greek male ideal had a small penis, an aesthetic the Romans later adopted.[3][22][23] The Greeks also created the first well-known instance of lesbian eroticism in the West, with Sappho's Hymn to Aphrodite and other homoerotic works.[24]
It was not until the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg that sexually explicit images entered into any type of mass circulation in the western world. Before that time, erotic images, being hand made and expensive, were limited to upper class males. Even the British Museum had a Secretum filled with a collection of ancient erotica donated by the upper class doctor, George Witt in 1865. The remains of the collection, including his scrapbooks, still reside in Cupboard 55, though the majority of it has recently been integrated with the museum's other collections.[32]
In 1839, Louis Daguerre presented the first practical process of photography to the French Academy of Sciences.[44] Unlike earlier photographic methods, his daguerreotypes had stunning quality and detail and did not fade with time. Artists adopted the new technology as a new way to depict the nude form, which in practice was the feminine form. In so doing, at least initially, they tried to follow the styles and traditions of the art form. Traditionally, an académie was a nude study done by a painter to master the female (or male) form. Each had to be registered with the French government and approved or they could not be sold. Soon, nude photographs were being registered as académie and marketed as aids to painters. However, the realism of a photograph as opposed to the idealism of a painting made many of these intrinsically erotic.[3] 2ff7e9595c
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